Pollution general And Noise Pollution

Pollution

                                                       Pollution has been defined by Odum (1971) as “the undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land and water that may affect the human life. The pollutants cause undesirable physical and biological changes. Pollution is caused due to pollutants.

POLLUTANTS:

                                  Odum defines pollutant as “residues of things we make, use and threw away are called pollutants. Pollutants may be solid, liquid or gaseous substances and are the residues of things we make, use and throwaway. There are many sources of such pollutants. Lakes and rivers are polluted by wastes from chemical and other factories and the air by gases of automobile exhausts, industries, thermal power plants etc The pollutants may be:

·         The pollutant may be gases like CO, SO2 etc.

·         These may be metals like lead, zinc, chromium etc.

·         There may be industrial pollutants like cyanide compounds, acetic acid acids.

·          Agriculture pollutants are pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.

·          Photochemical pollutants are ozone oxides, CFC (Chloroouro carbon).

·         Radiations from radioactive substance also act as pollutants

·         Noise: Horns, loudspeakers etc.

·         Municipal waste: Sewage, solid waste etc.

·         Fluorides: Fluorides

·         Deposited matter: Soot, smoke, tar, dust, grit etc.

There are two types of pollutants:

Nondegradable pollutants:

                                                                      The pollutants which are not degraded or degraded at very slov, rate are called Nondegradable pollutants. These are mostly inorganic compounds like metallic oxides. DDT etc.

Biodegradable pollutants:

                                                                     The pollutants which are degraded by microorganism are called biodegradable pollutants. These include domestic sewage. There are different types of pollutions, air, water, soil etc.

There are several kinds of pollutions which pollute our environment. But the major types are: Air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, noise pollution etc.

NOISE POLLUTION

                                 The ability to make and detect sound enables humans to communicate with each other as well as to receive useful information from the environment. We all hear sound produced by vehicles, trains, aeroplanes, industries, community functions etc. All these produce noise which is most dangerous pollutant of man's environment. Noise has become a permanent part of our lives in these days. Noise not only harms to our brain but it also affects the important internal organs of the body. It not only causes irritation but constricts our arteries, increases blood pressure and heart beats etc.

The noise can be defined as 'the unwanted sound or unpleasant sound which causes discomfort'. It may also defined as the wrong sound at the' wrong place at the wrong time. The unwanted sound forced into the atmosphere leads to health hazards. Noise is measured in decible (dB). Pain is usually felt at 145 dB. People begin to complain when unwantd sound reaches a level of upto 100 dB.

In the past, the noise was limited to the industries only, but these days there has been a rapid industrial growth, population explosion, heavy traffic, urban crowding etc. All these have added the noise nuisance in the environment. Besides these, social and religious functions increase the gravity of situation.

Sources:

                                 There are numerous sources of noise pollution. In the broad sense, these may be classified into three categories viz., (i) Industrial machinery noise, (ii) Traffic noise, and (iii) Community noise.

(i)               Industrial machinery noise:

                                                                     Major industries run with heavy machineries which produce noise. Persons working in such industries are constantly exposed to high level of noise.

(ii)             Traffic noise:

                                 In urban areas, trucks, buses, cars, trains, aeroplanes etc. produce noise at different levels.

(iii)          Community noise:

                                                The community functions also cause noise pollution. These functions viz., festivals, marriages, political elections, religious gatherings and so on are the main causes of community noise. Schools, libraries, study centres and hospitals are the victims of such noise. The radios, microphones, sound systems in residential areas also cause noise pollution.

Effects of noise pollution

                                                                                      The effects of noise pollution may have differentiated into two categories:  auditory effects and non-auditory effects.

1.    Auditory effects:

                             These include auditory fatigue and deafness.

(a)   Auditory fatigue:

                             It appears at 90 dB and it may be associated with side effects such as whistling and buzzing to ears.

(b)  Deafness:

                   It is caused due to continuous noise exposure. Temporary deafness occurs at 400-600 hz. Permanent loss of hearing occurs at 100 dB. Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai are noisy cities in India. Many persons exposed to unwanted noise have risk of deafness.

2.    Non-auditory effects:

                                                        The non-auditory effects are as follows:

(i)               Interference with speech communication:

                                                                                                              A noisy environment that produces more than 50-60 decibel simply does not allow 2 people to communicate properly. Interpreting the speech of a second person becomes quite difficult and may lead to misunderstanding.

(ii)            Annoyance:

                               Some persons express great annoyance at even low levels of noise as caused by crowed, highway traffic and radio etc. These cause ill temper, pricking etc.

(iii)          Cardiovascular Issues:

 A noisy environment can be a source of heart related problems. Studies have shown that high intensity sound causes a dramatic rise in blood pressure as noise levels constrict the arteries, disrupting the blood ow. The heart rate (the number of heart-beats per minute) also increases. These sudden abnormal changes in the blood increase the likelihood of cardiovascular diseases in the long run.

(iv)          Loss of working efficiency:

                                                                     Because high level noise causes tiredness and those doing mental work may put to deterioration in their efficiency or even complete loss of ability to work.

(v)             Physiological disorders:

                                                              Noise pollution develops a number of physiological disorders. These are neurosis, anxiety, insomnia, hypertension, behavioral and emotional stress, fatigue etc. Thus, noise affects the overall mental and physical health of a person. Continuous noise causes an increase in cholesterol level which may cause heart disease. There may be still births and usually low weight children are born to mothers living near airport. Noise pollution also causes incidence of peptic ulcers. Supersonic aero planes create shock waves called sonic boon which produce a starter effect and can be more harmful than a continuous noise. The sonic boon may spread in the area of 10-80 miles and when it hits the ground, it damages the window pans and building structures. This may also fasten the human heart beats.

Control measures of noise pollution

1.                   SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc

2.                 TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.

3.                 RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.

4.                 OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

Preventive measures:

1.                 Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2.                  Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas

3.                 Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals

4.                 Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof

5.                 Reduction of traffic density in residential areas

6.                 Giving preference to mass public transport system.

           c  

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Economic Importance of Gymnosperms:-

Q. Describe the economic importance of Gymnosperms in detail?

Economic Importance of Gymnosperms:-

The Gymnosperms are an economically important group of plants spread all over the globe, primarily in the temperate regions and at higher elevations in the  tropics. The trees are used for landscaping, timber, building construction, resin and for the manufacture of paper and board.

Wood:-

·       The wood of Abies alba, an important timber tree of Europe is used in general carpentry. It is white or yellowish white, light, soft with distinct annual rings. It finds use in the sound boards of musical instruments, carving, wood wool, boxes , paper pulp , planks and boards. After treatment with preservatives or copper sulphate, it can be used as telephone and telegraph poles.

·       A.balsamea is distributed mainly in North America and Canada. The wood is light, weak, and knotty and is used for ordinary buildings and box-making. It is increasingly being used with spruce , as pulp –wood for paper making. A. amabilis (in Alaska) , A. grandis (Canada ), A. concolor (Western N. America ) and A. procera (America) wood is used for interior furnishing , box making , building purposes and general carpentry.

·       Agathis australis, Kauri pine‘the chief timber tree of New Zealand with its extremely tall, without taper cylindrical bole, ranks amongst the largest timber producing trees of the world. The wood is fine and even textured with a silky, lustrous surface. It is useful in building construction, boats, and vats and wooden machinery.

·        Araucaria angustifolia occurs mainly in Brazil yielding a non- durable, heavy and uniformly textured wood, useful in making doors , bus chassis , plywood and in joinery work.

·       A. bidwillie and A .cunninghamii are important timber trees for plywood manufacture in Australia. The wood is white or green colored and straight grained and easily worked. It is used for indoor finish, furniture, general house fittings, box wood , carving etc.

·       Cedrus atlantica (Algeria, Moroco) ,  C. deodara (India) and C. libani (Lebanon ) are much valued among conifers. The wood of Cedrus is in great demand as it is very durable , oily sweet scented and generally without resin ducts. C . deodara , the deodar , is one of the most important timbers of North India. The seasonal wood is resistant to the insect attack due to the presence of oil. It is used for making doors , poles , furniture  , beams , ceilings , columns , carriages , wagons , boats , flooring and wood carving. It was even used as battery separators and railway sleepers.

·       The wood of Chamaecyparis formosensis has a very smooth surface. It is used for making sound boards of musical instrumens.  C. lawsoniana , widely distributed in America , furnishes timber that is light , fine and even textured, moderately strong , very durable with fragrant and spicy odour. It is mainly employed for ship building , railway sleepers and fence posts , match sticks , furniture , organ pipes and internal finish of houses and flooring. It keeps away moths and insects.

·       Cryptomeria japonica yields a coarse-grained , fragrant , strong , durable , easy to work wood. It is one of the most utilized timbers of Japan. The bark is carefully stripped from trees and is used for roofing of houses. The wood is employed for building construction , paneling , furniture and joinery.

·       The wood of Phyllocladus rhomboidalis (Tasmania) is used for making masts of small vessels, flooring and building purposes. P. trichomanoides in New Zealand yields a strong , dense , heavy wood that finds use in building work , mine , timbers , marine pebs and sleepers

Resins:-

·       Resins are plant exudates which make the wood resistant to decay. Conifers are amongst the major resin yielders of the world. The resins are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

·       The superior grade resin is used in paper sizing , varnishes , enamels , plasters , medicines and ointments.

·       The pine oleoresin was used to smear mummies by ancient Egyptians. An oleroresin (also called pine gum, pine pitch or turpentine) is the mixture of rosin and essential oil. A pine tree yields only oleoresins from which rosin could be separated by distillation. The residue after the distillation of oleoresin is called the gum rosin or colophony. Rosin is also obtained by solvent extraction of old stumps. Such rosin is called wood rosin.

Copal:-

·       Copal belongs to the group hard resins which contain only a little essential oil. These are much valued in the varnish industry because of their high melting point and hardness.

·       Of the Copals, the most important and most valued is the kauri resin, also called ‗Kauri gum‘ or ‗Kauri copal ‗ obtained from the kauri pine. (Agathis australis). It occurs underground in fossilized form. The copal resin is used for interior work and enamels and in preparation of spirit varnishes , lacquers , linoleum , plastics , oil cloth, water proofing compounds , printing inks and as sizing material.

Canada balsam:-

·       The resin obtained from Abies balsamea has a very high refractive index nearing that of glass. This makes Canada balsam as the most preferred mounting medium for microscopic objects and cement for lenses in optical work.

Amber :-

·       It is a fossil resin secreted by the now extinct pine, Pinus succinifera. It occurs in blue earth near the eastern shore of the Baltic , Sicily, Madagascar and Myanmar (Burma).

·       It is used in medicine and x-ray therapy. It is reported that blood does not coagulate when kept in amber containers. It is also used for beads , carving and other ornaments , cigarette and cigar holders and mouth pieces of smoking pipes.

Essential oils:-

·       Picea abies yields spruce oil , that is pleasant and refreshing and is used in room sprays , bath salts and deodorants.

·       Abies sibirica, yields the Siberian fir needle oil, and is used in scenting of soaps (both toilet and shaving) , bath preparations , room sprays , deodorants and disinfectants.

·       The oil extracted from Cedrus deodara is used in perfumery and scenting soaps. It is also recommended for clearing tissues in histological work and for use with oil immersion lens of the microscope.

·        Cedrus atlantica yields an oil with medicinal properties. It is used against bronchitis , tuberculosis , skin diseases and gonorrhoe. 

·       The Cedar wood oil, obtained from Juniperus mexicana, finds its use in scenting soaps , room sprays , deodorants , insecticides , moth proofing , floor polishes , lubricating greases etc.

Fatty oils :-

·       Many Gymnosperms seeds contain fatty oils. Tall oil ( fatty acids : 20 to 60% , resin acid : 10 – 60 %  unsaponifiable material : 5-24%) which is obtained as a by-product during sulphate process of cooking , conifer wood for making craft paper, is used in paints , soaps , linoleum , emulsifiers , organic coaling industry etc.

·       The fatty oil obtained from the seeds of Ceplatoaxus drupacea is used as an illuminant in Japan, whereas the oil from Pinus cembra seeds is used for food and paints. 

Paper:-

·       Superior quality of writing and printing paper is manufactured from the wood of Picea , Tsuga and Abies. , whereas craft paper is obtained from Pinus . Most paper manufacturers consider that spruce is king.‘

Food:-

·       In many parts of the world Cycads are used as a source of starch- either from the seed kernels or from stem pith. The stem starch is more popularly known as ‘sago‘ and is mainly obtained from Cycas circinalis , C. rumphii and C. revoluta and also form Zamia and Macrozamia. 

·       The pith of Encephalartos stem is used in Africa to make ‘Kaffir bread‘.

·       The young unfolded succulent leaves of Cycas circinalis , C. pectinata ,C. rumphii and Cycas siamensis are cooked and eaten in the Malay Peninsula , Phillipines , India , Indonesia etc. 

·       Macrozamia spiralis and M.reidlei are an important source of stem starch in Australia . M. reidlei starch has been used for laundry. M spiralis starch has been exploited for conversion into power alcohol.

·       The cycads have long been known to be poisonous in nature. Eating seed  kernels can be an acute irritant and an intake of cycad leaves can affect nerves. The poisonous principle is inactivated by heating.

·       Pine seeds , have long been have been used as a food item for a long time. Pinus gerardiana , the Chilgoza pine, are grows in the Himalayas and its seeds are considered an important food item from Tibet to Afghanistan.

·       The best known edible pine in Europe is P. pinea. The cones are exposed to sun to expand the scales. The seeds are mechanically released to expose the kernels. The nuts are In Italy , used in soups, as dessert and in the preparation of a much valued sweetmeat. 

Tannins:-

·       Small quantities of tannins are obtained from the bark of Tsuga canadensis , Sequoia sempervirens, Larix decidua, Picea alba , Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Araucaria and Dacrydium cupressinum.

·       Tannins are mainly used in the leather and petroleum industry, in medicine and for dyeing purposes.

Drugs:-

·       The alkaloid ephedrine is extracted from the green branches of Ephedra sinica, E. equisetina and E. gerardiana .

·       Ephedrine is an important ingredient in the cough mixtures because of its action in dilating the bronchial tube. It also contracts mucous membranes and is used in nasal drops and inhalents.

·       An extract of leaves of Ginkgo biloba is useful in the treatment of cerebral insufficiency and Vertigo.

·       The leaves of Taxus baccata are used in asthma , bronchitis , hiccough, epilepsy and for indigestion. Taxol (from Taxus brevifolia ) has been shown to be effective against ovarian cancer ; breast cancer , non-small –cell cancer , melanoma and colon cancer.

·        The juice of young leaves of C. revoluta finds use for flatulence and vomiting blood. 

Decoration :-

·       The one single item that heightens the beauty of any hill resort / forest is the Conifers, be it a pine, cedar, fir, spruce, juniper or hemlock. They are a pride possession of any horticulturist or garden lover.

·        Picea and Abies are ceremoniously used as Christmas trees. Gymnosperms offer a good source material for developing ‘Bonsai‘plants.

·       The art of dwarfing trees originated in Japan and is now fancied the  world over. Juniperous chinensis,  Pinus parviflora, Pinus thunbergii, Pinus densiflora , P. nigra and P .mugo are some of the conifers used for this purpose. 

·       Cupressus junebris is generally planted around tombs and religious buildings.

·       Taxus and Ginkgo plants are used as ornamentals.

Other uses :-

·       Wood wool and leaf wool are obtained by longitudinally cutting wood chips or leaves of conifers into small pieces.

·       The wool is used for stuffing pillows, cushions etc. Wool from essential oil- yielding conifers is in demand as it emits a very faint and pleasant pine smell.

·       The bark from several trees such as Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus contorta , P. ponderosa and Tsuga heterophylla is added to wood in making commercial boards of standard quality.

·       The bark and wood flour ( saw mill waste) are used for making linoleum , plastics , artificial wood, composition flooring , insulating bricks and as an absorbent in the manufacture of dynamite .

·       Malco-pimaric acid , obtained from crude pine – pitch , is used in printers , ink, paper sizing and photographic chemicals.

Source of Information and study:-

Gymnosperms – page 403 BY. S. P . Bhatnagar

The Gymnosperms BY.  B. M. Johri

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Scope and Application of Ecology

Scope and Application of Ecology

Plant ecology 

                     It is a subdiscipline of ecology which studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among and betweenplants and other organisms.

Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organism and their environments.

All the populations that live in a habitat and interact in various ways with one another are collectively called a community.

Applications of ecology

Pollution

                It is defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water, and land that may harmfully affect living organisms and natural resources.

Pollutants

                 These are the substances that actually cause pollution are e.g. industrial effluents and domestic wastes.

Two basic types of pollutants are recognized:

Non-biodegradable pollutants such as aluminum cans and nuclear wastes are not degrade or degrade very slowly in the natural environment. Lead cannot be removed from the air we breathe.

Bio-degradable pollutants are the substances that break down into simpler substances due to the activity of living organisms and mixed with the soil. These pollutants do not cause permanent environmental pollution.

Water pollution it is the change in the composition of water by the addition of harmful substances. Water pollution severely affects the health of people.

·       Sewage is the major pollutants of water. It contains organic, matter and the excreta of human and other animals.

·       The waste of industries (acids, alkalis, dyes and other chemicals) are disposed in nearby water bodies.

·       Heavy metals like lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium also make the water polluted. Polluted water becomes deoxygenated and do not support life therefore water pollution is more dangerous as compared to air pollution.

Control

·       Sewage must be purified through sewage treatment techniques.

·       Industrial wastes should be treated before they are released into water bodies.

·       Water treatment plants, municipal sewage treatment plants, septic tanks, oxidation ponds and filter bed are help full in controlling pollution.

Noise pollution also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life.

The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and transportation systems.

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease.

Control

·       Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by urban planning and better design of roads. 

·       Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tyre design.

Solid waste / Land pollution

The pesticides used in agriculture have chemicals that stay in soil for a long times. The acid rain changes the PH of soil making it unsuitable for cultivation.

Control

·       There should be suitable and safe disposal of wastes including nuclear wastes.

·        Non-biodegradable materials like plastic, glass, metals should be recovered and recycled. Inorganic pesticides should be replaced by organic pesticides.

Thermal pollution

Various industrial processes may utilize water for cooling and resultant warmed water has often been discharged into streams or lakes.

·       It causes thermal pollution or calefaction, thermal pollution produces distinct changes in aquatic biota and interrupt aquatic ecosystem.

·       The warm water bodies hols less oxygen than the cold water, therefore aquatic animals cannot exist in these water bodies.

Control

·       Cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation.

·       Cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and  industrial heating purposes.

Preventive measures

To ensure sustainable use of resources in our environment, we should act upon the principle of ’The 3 R ‘ i.e

·       Reuse:  we should use things again and again. We should not throw away materials such as glass containers and plastic bags.  

·      Recycle: materials such as paper, plastic and glass can be recycled. A recycling of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.

·       Reduce:  we should use the natural resources less and should not waste them.

·       The coal based industries should construct long chimneys so that smoke dispersed over a large area.

·       The non-combustible solid wastes like ash, rubbish, tins , glass and plastic may be dumped in low-lying areas by landfill method.

Soil  The word soil is derived from latin solum meaning soil or land.Soil  is a collection of natural bodies of earth that is composed of minerals and organic matter and is capable of supporting plant growth.Upper soil layer in which grasses are rooted is normally moist but deep layers are constantly dry. The soil of grassland is basically impermeable with excessive salinity. The soil rich in sand are porous and allow deep root penetration so that the seedlings establish themselves well.It is general rule that finer the texture of a soil the greater its fertility.Deep rooted plants can grow in sandy soils.The loam soils are most suitable for growth of plants as water rises due to capillarity in these soils.

Forestry

Forests are natural ecosystem dominated by trees. These covers about one-third of world’s land surface and provide habitat for wildlife, wood, fodder, fiber and fruit.

·       Forestry is the science, art and practice of understanding, managing and using wisely the natural resources associated with, and derived from forest lands.

·       These resources include timber, water, fish, wildlife, soil, plants, and recreation.

Wildlife

Wild life refers to all non-cultivated plants and non-domesticated animals in an ecosystem. Wild animals are an important source of food and skin (Leather). Wild life is a renewable resource therefore its management is necessary.

·       It is important economically and source of recreation.

·       Legislations may be introduced to prevent hunting.

·       The habitats for wildlife may be conserved.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the cultivation of land and breeding of animals and plants to provide food, fiber, medicinal plants and other products to sustain and enhance life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization.

The study of agriculture is known as Agricultural science.

·       The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials (such as rubber).

·       Classes of foods include cereals (grains), eggs, fungi, milk, vegetables, fruits, oils and meat.

·       Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although the number of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries.

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